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Rainbow trout

Oncorhynchus mykiss

Oncorhynchus mykiss (Rainbow trout)
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Distribution
Distribution map: Oncorhynchus mykiss (Rainbow trout)




Information


Authors: Jenny Volstorf, Maria Filipa Castanheira
Version: C | 2.0 (2022-12-27)


Reviewers: N/A
Editor: Jenny Volstorf

Initial release: 2016-11-26
Version information:
  • Appearance: C
  • Last major update: 2022-12-27

Cite as: »Volstorf, Jenny, and Maria Filipa Castanheira. 2022. Oncorhynchus mykiss (WelfareCheck | farm). In: fair-fish database, ed. fair-fish. World Wide Web electronic publication. First published 2016-11-26. Version C | 2.0. https://fair-fish-database.net.«





WelfareScore | farm

Oncorhynchus mykiss
LiPoCe
Criteria
Home range
score-li
score-po
score-ce
Depth range
score-li
score-po
score-ce
Migration
score-li
score-po
score-ce
Reproduction
score-li
score-po
score-ce
Aggregation
score-li
score-po
score-ce
Aggression
score-li
score-po
score-ce
Substrate
score-li
score-po
score-ce
Stress
score-li
score-po
score-ce
Malformations
score-li
score-po
score-ce
Slaughter
score-li
score-po
score-ce


Legend

Condensed assessment of the species' likelihood and potential for good fish welfare in aquaculture, based on ethological findings for 10 crucial criteria.

  • Li = Likelihood that the individuals of the species experience good welfare under minimal farming conditions
  • Po = Potential of the individuals of the species to experience good welfare under high-standard farming conditions
  • Ce = Certainty of our findings in Likelihood and Potential

WelfareScore = Sum of criteria scoring "High" (max. 10)

score-legend
High
score-legend
Medium
score-legend
Low
score-legend
Unclear
score-legend
No findings



General remarks

Oncorhynchus mykiss is one of the dominant salmonids farmed in Europe and North America, second only to Salmo salar. In addition, it is one of the most widely studied model fish species in the wild and in captivity. Yet, the living conditions and the husbandry systems that maximise the welfare of this species are still to be defined, developed, and improved. This lack is quite incomprehensible, given the background and the availability of research performed on this species. The low FishEthoScore is mainly due to the need of space and substrate and to high levels of aggression, stress, and high deformations under farming conditions. Grow-out typically takes place in ponds or raceways, sometimes also in cages. There are two strains in O. mykiss: the anadromous one, also called Steelhead trout, and the potamodromous Rainbow trout. Aquaculture populations probably combine genes of both strains. In anadromous FISHES, throughout the life history, morphology, behaviour, and environmental requirements change. Husbandry systems and practices need to take such differences into account in order to achieve and maintain high welfare. The development of new rearing strategies to optimise the husbandry practices as well as handling with special care would be a step forward to solve some specific welfare concerns. Finally, providing feed which contains a lower amount of fish components from wild catch has proven feasible for this species in lab studies, so a protocol for application in farming conditions has to be developed.

Note: The name of the age classes differ in the two strains: LARVAE in Rainbow trout are called ALEVINS in Steelhead trout, JUVENILES in Rainbow trout are called PARR and SMOLTS in Steelhead trout, SPAWNERS in Rainbow trout are called GRILSE and KELTS in Steelhead trout. For consistency with other profiles, we will apply the usual age class structure of eggs, LARVAE, FRY, JUVENILES, ADULTS, SPAWNERS and make sure to signal the respective age class for Steelhead trout in the entries.




1  Home range

Many species traverse in a limited horizontal space (even if just for a certain period of time per year); the home range may be described as a species' understanding of its environment (i.e., its cognitive map) for the most important resources it needs access to.

What is the probability of providing the species' whole home range in captivity?

It is low for minimal farming conditions. It is medium for high-standard farming conditions, as the range in captivity at least overlaps with the range in the wild. Our conclusion is based on a medium amount of evidence, as wild information in larvae, fry, and at sea (Steelhead trout) as well as farm information in spawners is missing.

Likelihoodscore-li
Potentialscore-po
Certaintyscore-ce

Eggs: does not apply.

LARVAE and FRY:

  • WILD: in the related Salmo salar, FRY move 1-5 m from the redd 1. Further research needed to determine whether this applies to O. mykiss as well.
  • FARM: tanks: 0.5-1.0 m3 2, 2 m ∅ 3, 4 m2 (2 x 2 m) 3, 0.5-1.4 m3 in 2.5 t production unit, 1.0-2.8 m3 in 5 t production unit 4.
  • LAB: does not apply.

JUVENILES:

  • WILD: usually 0-3 km (Rainbow trout) 5 6 7. Majority of released hatchery-reared IND remained within 1-3 km of release site 8.
  • FARM: raceways: 24-90 m2 (2-3 m x 12-30 m) 3, 1,200 m2 9, 560-650 m2 10, 1,760 m2 (220 x 8 m) 11; ponds: 24-60 m2 (2-3 m x 12-30 m) 3, 1,300 m2 9, 300-1,000 m2 (30-50 x 10-20 m) 4, 360-1,040 m2 10; tanks: 4-25 m3 in 2.5 t production unit, 8-50 m3 in 5 t production unit 4; cages: 36 m2 (6 x 6 m) 3, 40-50 m ∅ (16,000-130,000 m3) 12.
  • LAB: does not apply.

ADULTS:

  • WILD: usually 1-15 km (Rainbow trout) 5 13 14 7. Non-native waters: lake: either used much of 33 km2 or stayed in bay (Rainbow trout) 15.
  • FARM JUVENILES.
  • LAB: does not apply.

SPAWNERS:

  • WILD: usually 0.7-4.6 km up- or downstream (Rainbow trout) 16.
  • FARM: no data found yet.
  • LAB: does not apply. ​



2  Depth range

Given the availability of resources (food, shelter) or the need to avoid predators, species spend their time within a certain depth range.

What is the probability of providing the species' whole depth range in captivity?

It is low for minimal farming conditions. It is medium for high-standard farming conditions, as the range in captivity at least overlaps with the range in the wild. Our conclusion is based on a medium amount of evidence.

Likelihoodscore-li
Potentialscore-po
Certaintyscore-ce

Eggs:

  • WILD: for depth of redd  SPAWNERS.
  • FARM: troughs: 0.2 m 3, 0.3-0.5 m 2.
  • LAB: does not apply.

LARVAE and FRY:

  • WILDALEVINS: moved to shallow areas after emerging from gravel (Steelhead trout) 17.
  • FARM: tanks: 0.1-0.2 m at first 18, 0.2-0.5 m 2, 0.5-0.6 m 3, 0.8-1 m 18.
  • LAB: does not apply.

JUVENILES:

  • WILD: usually 0-5 m (Rainbow trout) 19 20 21 22. SMOLTS: at sea, majority within 1 m (Steelhead trout) 23-24.
  • FARM: raceways and ponds: 0.6-0.9 m 9, 0.8 m 11, 1-1.5 m 3 25 4; cages: 4-5 m 3, 40 m 26,10-50 m 12.
  • LAB: does not apply.

ADULTS:

  • WILD: usually 0-20 m 20 15 21. ≤100 m (Rainbow trout) 15KELTS: at sea, majority within 1 m (Steelhead trout) 23-24.
  • FARM: JUVENILES.
  • LAB: does not apply.

SPAWNERS:

  • WILD: build redd at 0.1 m (Steelhead trout) 17.
  • FARMno data found yet.
  • LAB: does not apply.



3  Migration

Some species undergo seasonal changes of environments for different purposes (feeding, spawning, etc.), and to move there, they migrate for more or less extensive distances.

What is the probability of providing farming conditions that are compatible with the migrating or habitat-changing behaviour of the species?

It is low for minimal and high-standard farming conditions, as both strains undertake extensive migrations, and we cannot be sure that providing each age class with their respective environmental conditions will satisfy their urge to migrate or whether they need to experience the transition. Our conclusion is based on a medium amount of evidence.

Likelihoodscore-li
Potentialscore-po
Certaintyscore-ce

Two strains: one ANADROMOUS ("Steelhead trout") 14 27, the other POTAMODROMOUS ("Rainbow trout") 14 16. EURYHALINE 17 24 28.

ANADROMOUS strain ("Steelhead trout"):

Eggs: does not apply.

ALEVINS and FRY:

  • WILD: in streams and rivers 29
  • FARM: fresh water 2 3 25.
  • LAB: no data found yet.

PARR and SMOLTS:

  • WILD: PARR: in fresh water for ≤4 years, performing upstream and downstream migrations 17. Migrate to sea to mature, some return as immature SMOLTS for another season 17 24 28
  • FARM: raceways: 10-22 °C (higher red bloodcell count and cortisol at higher temperatures) 30, fresh water 3 30; cages: 0-20 °C 12, fresh water or seawater 2 3, typically 33‰, but may be lower 12.
  • LAB: no data found yet.

ADULTS:

  • WILD: at sea for 1-3 years 17 24
  • FARM: cages: 0-20 °C 12, fresh water or seawater 2 3, typically 33‰, but may be lower 12.
  • LAB: no data found yet.

GRILSE and KELTS:

  • WILD: migrate as GRILSE from sea to natal streams to spawn 17 24. Some return to sea as KELTS and spawn again in streams for second, third, fourth time 17.
  • FARM: no data found yet.
  • LAB: highest survival in warm brackish water (6-7 °C, 10-17‰) compared to sea- or fresh water 31.

POTAMODROMOUS strain ("Rainbow trout"):

Eggs: does not apply.

LARVAE and FRY:

  • WILD: no data found yet.
  • FARM: no data found yet.
  • LAB: no data found yet.

JUVENILES :

  • WILD: fresh water 15 16.
  • FARM: raceways: 10-22 °C (higher red bloodcell count and cortisol at higher temperatures) 30, fresh water 3 30; cages: 0-20 °C 12, fresh water or seawater 2 3, typically 33‰, but may be lower 12.
  • LAB: no data found yet.

ADULTS:

  • WILD JUVENILES.
  • FARM: JUVENILES.
  • LAB: no data found yet.

SPAWNERS:

  • WILD: move 20-26 km upstream to spawn 16.
  • FARM: no data found yet.
  • LAB: highest survival in warm brackish water (6-7 °C, 10-17‰) compared to sea- or fresh water 31.



4  Reproduction

A species reproduces at a certain age, season, and sex ratio and possibly involving courtship rituals.

What is the probability of the species reproducing naturally in captivity without manipulation of theses circumstances?

It is low for minimal farming conditions. It is medium for high-standard farming conditions, as natural spawning is possible, and small farms simulate natural spawning conditions and do not apply hormonal manipulation, but omitting of separation of males and females (to be able to court) as well as omitting of stripping needs to be verified for the farming context. Our conclusion is based on a medium amount of evidence.

Likelihoodscore-li
Potentialscore-po
Certaintyscore-ce

Eggs: does not apply.

LARVAE and FRY: does not apply.

JUVENILES: does not apply.

ADULTS: does not apply.

SPAWNERS:

  • WILD: spawn at 2-7 years (Steelhead trout) 17, November-May in the Northern hemisphere and August-November in the Southern hemisphere 32 3. Sex ratio: 1:1 (Steelhead trout) 17. While female built nest, male either chased attending males or stimulated female (Steelhead trout) 33-17. Females are batch spawners (Steelhead trout) 17. For nest building  W1.
  • FARM: spawn for first time at second year for males, third year for females 18, are used at 3-4 years 3 or 1-6 years 18 or 2-7 years 2 or PHOTOPERIOD manipulation to spawn at 2 years 25. Spawn during autumn-winter 2 at sex ratio 1:1 2 or 1:2-3 male:female 3 25 18. Males and females are sometimes kept separated 3, other times not 2 and in yet other cases, they are kept together and only separated at first indication of being ready for spawning migration (to prevent spontaneous spawning) 18. Frequently, farmers use sex-reversed all-female IND to create all-female next generation 3. Feeding FRY hormones will produce functional males 3. Avoids applying hormone manipulation to marketed IND 3. No off-season production by PHOTOPERIOD or temperature manipulation 2, but large farms apply hormone manipulation to induce ovulation and spermiation 18. Small farms decrease water levels and increase water current to simulate natural conditions 18. Stripping (under anaesthesia) to get eggs and semen 2 3 25 18.
  • LAB: male courted female while she cut the redd 34. Lower egg weight and lower survival at eyeing, higher percentage of malformations in ALEVINS after PHOTOPERIOD manipulation of SPAWNERS compared to control 35.



5  Aggregation

Species differ in the way they co-exist with conspecifics or other species from being solitary to aggregating unstructured, casually roaming in shoals or closely coordinating in schools of varying densities.

What is the probability of providing farming conditions that are compatible with the aggregation behaviour of the species?

It is low for minimal farming conditions, as – even in the absence of densities in the wild – we may conclude from laboratory studies that densities in raceways, cages, and some tanks are potentially stress inducing. It is medium for high-standard farming conditions, as lower stress at stocking densities in ponds and (some) tanks need to be verified for the farming context. Our conclusion is based on a medium amount of evidence.

Likelihoodscore-li
Potentialscore-po
Certaintyscore-ce

Eggs: does not apply.

LARVAE and FRY:

  • WILDALEVINS: school (Steelhead trout) 17.
  • FARM: FRY: tanks: 2,000-5,000 IND/m2 36-18, 2.5-10 kg/m3 or 1,000-2,500 IND/m3 4.
  • LAB: no data found yet.

JUVENILES:

  • WILDPARR: moved solitarily downstream (Steelhead trout) 17.
  • FARM: raceways: 25-50 IND/m3 3, 50-55 kg/m3 9, 40-55 kg/m3 10; earthen ponds: 8-12 kg/m3 9, 3-8 kg/m3 or 10-240 IND/m3 4, 10-15 kg/m3, temporarily 30 kg/m3 10, 5-20 kg/m3 30; tanks: 10-25 kg/m3 or 30-800 IND/m3 4, 5-100 kg/m3 37; cages: 30-40 kg/m3 or 694.4-555.6 IND/m3 3.
  • LAB: more fin damage and erratic swimming and higher swimming activity day and night at 125 kg/m3 than 25 or 75 kg/m3 38. Higher growth at 25 kg/m3 than 100 kg/m3 39. Longer dorsal, caudal, and pectoral fins at 10 kg/m3 than 40 or 80 kg/m3 40. Increased shoal cohesion in tanks enriched with PVC pipes, plastic plants, stones than in barren tanks probably indicating positive emotions 41.

ADULTS:

  • WILD: the related S. salar lives in schools during migration 42 43 44. Further research needed to determine whether this applies to O. mykiss as well.
  • FARM: JUVENILES.
  • LAB: no data found yet.

SPAWNERS:

  • WILD: KELTS: after spawning, when not immediately gone to sea, congregated in small groups, not schools (Steelhead trout) 17.
  • FARM: <10 kg/m3 2, 6-7 IND/m2 18.
  • LAB: no data found yet.



6  Aggression

There is a range of adverse reactions in species, spanning from being relatively indifferent towards others to defending valuable resources (e.g., food, territory, mates) to actively attacking opponents.

What is the probability of the species being non-aggressive and non-territorial in captivity?

It is low for minimal farming conditions, as aggression is present in all age classes, and size-grading does not seem to improve it. It is medium for high-standard farming conditions, as innovations to decrease aggression by adding enrichment need to be verified for the farming context. Our conclusion is based on a medium amount of evidence.

Likelihoodscore-li
Potentialscore-po
Certaintyscore-ce

Eggs: does not apply.

LARVAE and FRY:

  • WILD: aggressive and territorial (Steelhead trout) 45.
  • FARM: aggressive and territorial in size-graded groups 46. Cannibalistic with insufficient feeding rate 18. Competitive for food with higher fin erosion when fed 3 compared to 2 times/day possibly due to fin biting especially taking place during feeding 47.
  • LAB: no data found yet.

JUVENILES:

  • WILD: PARR: established territory (Steelhead trout) 17.
  • FARM: more aggressive with feeding schedule compared to free access regime 48.
  • LAB: aggressive in groups of 2 49 50 and 12 51. Territorial in groups of 12 51. Increasing fin damage with decreasing ration size (from 1.0-1.3% to 0.3-0.5% 52, from 1.5-2.0% to 0.5-1.0% 53), strongest hierarchy and food competition at ration size 0.3% 52. Highly attracted to enrichment through bubbles which decreased agonistic behaviour, burst of accelerations, and jumps before feeding compared to time as anticipatory stimulus 54. Enrichment with PVC pipes, plastic plants, and stones decreased agonistic and stereotypic behaviour compared to barren tanks 41.

ADULTS:

  • WILD: no data found yet.
  • FARM: no data found yet.
  • LAB: no data found yet.

SPAWNERS:

  • WILD: no data found yet.
  • FARMaggressive 18.
  • LAB: for aggression and reproduction  W2.



7  Substrate

Depending on where in the water column the species lives, it differs in interacting with or relying on various substrates for feeding or covering purposes (e.g., plants, rocks and stones, sand and mud).

What is the probability of providing the species' substrate and shelter needs in captivity?

It is low for minimal farming conditions, as the species uses substrate, but many or all farming facilities for each age class are devoid of it. It is medium for high-standard farming conditions a) given earthen ponds which are not replaced by concrete or stone bottom, b) as improvements for spawners are unlikely, and c) as innovations for enrichment need to be verified for the farming context. Our conclusion is based on a medium amount of evidence.

Likelihoodscore-li
Potentialscore-po
Certaintyscore-ce

Eggs:

  • WILD: in gravel (Steelhead trout) 17.
  • FARM: for details of holding systems  W3.
  • LAB: after oviposition, female covered eggs in gravel 34.

LARVAE and FRY:

  • WILD: hatch in gravel (Rainbow trout) 55 56. ALEVINS: hatch in gravel (Steelhead trout) 17.
  • FARM: less fin erosion in raceways enriched with stones than without 57. Took shelter when tank was covered whereas scattered when not covered 58. For details of holding systems  W4 and W3.
  • LAB: less fin erosion in raceways enriched with gravel than without 59.

JUVENILES:

  • WILD: found over small rubble to large boulders (Steelhead trout) 17. Took shelter in Chara vulgaris, silt, and clay (Rainbow trout) 19 or between boulders (Steelhead trout) 29.
  • FARM: raceways covered by net to protect from avian predators 11. Higher growth 60 61 and better tolerance of transferring to seawater when reared in cobble-bottom pond than in raceway 60 or in earthen pond than in asphalt-bottom pond 61. Ponds used to have pebble bottom, but have since been replaced by concrete or stone for easier cleaning 4. For details of holding systems  W4 and W3.
  • LAB: lower cortisol in IND in enclosures covered by plywood than in non-enclosed IND, probably due to protection from predation 62. Lower cortisol when tanks were occupationally enriched with randomly fired currents (meant to mimic natural conditions in rivers) than in barren tanks 63. Tanks: IND learned to associate bubbles with appearing for feeding (concluded from feed-anticipatory behaviour) representing effective occupational enrichment 54. Lower fin erosion, fear, neophobia as well as higher growth and boldness in tanks enriched with PVC pipes, plastic plants, and stones than in barren tanks 41. Lower swimming activity in enriched tanks probably indicates lower need to perform stereotypical activities as in impoverished tanks 41. For substrate and a) aggregation  W5, b) aggression  W6.

ADULTS:

  • WILD: found over small rubble (Steelhead trout) 17 to large boulders (Steelhead trout) 17 (Rainbow trout) 64. Rested in "tunnels" in Chara macrophyte beds (Rainbow trout) 15. Found with woody debris (Rainbow trout) 64, took shelter behind boulders or in undercut banks (Rainbow trout) 64.
  • FARM: higher growth and better tolerance of transferring to seawater when reared in earthen pond than in asphalt-bottom pond 61. For details of holding systems  W4 and W3.
  • LAB: lower cortisol when tanks were occupationally enriched with randomly fired currents (meant to mimic natural conditions in rivers) than in barren tanks 63.

SPAWNERS:

  • WILD: female cutts redd (Steelhead) 17 20 56 in medium to small gravel 17.
  • FARM: for stripping  W2.
  • LAB: no data found yet.



8  Stress

Farming involves subjecting the species to diverse procedures (e.g., handling, air exposure, short-term confinement, short-term crowding, transport), sudden parameter changes or repeated disturbances (e.g., husbandry, size-grading).

What is the probability of the species not being stressed?

It is low for minimal farming conditions. It is medium for high-standard farming conditions, as innovations to reduce stress need to be verified for the farming context. Our conclusions are based on a medium amount of evidence.

Likelihoodscore-li
Potentialscore-po
Certaintyscore-ce

Eggs:

  • WILD: no data found yet.
  • FARM: no data found yet.
  • LAB: no data found yet.

LARVAE and FRY:

  • WILD: no data found yet.
  • FARM: no data found yet.
  • LAB: stressed by air exposure and temperature shock 65.

JUVENILES:

  • WILD: no data found yet.
  • FARM: regular grading during production cycle 3, usually harvested by lowering water level and netting (in ponds, raceways, tanks) 3 or crowding and pumping (in cages) 3 66. Transported to slaughter side usually by truck 66. Stressed by transport 67 68, less so if the transport water was supplemented with 5 g NaCl/L 67. Stressed by fin injuries 37. Raceways: monitoring weight by infrared technology was precise on average 11 and is potentially less stressful than capture-dependent sampling, as it is non-intrusive.
  • LAB: stressed by handling and injection with acid 69. Stressed by air exposure 70 71. Stressed by confinement 39 72 71 73 50, less so when exposed repeatedly 71 and by IND selected for low cortisol responsiveness 50. Stressed by transport 72, chasing 72, netting 74 72 75, novel object 69. Tanks: water cortisol levels can be used as a non-invasive method to measure stress 70. For stress and a) aggregation  W5, b) substrate  W1.

ADULTS:

  • WILD: no data found yet.
  • FARM: usually harvested by lowering water level and netting (in ponds, raceways, tanks) 3 or crowding and pumping (in cages) 3 66. Transported to slaughter side usually by truck 66. Stressed by transport 68.
  • LAB: no data found yet.

SPAWNERS:

  • WILD: no data found yet.
  • FARM: stressed by handling 76, less so under anaesthesia, but may decrease duration of sperm motility 76.
  • LAB: no data found yet.



9  Malformations

Deformities that – in contrast to diseases – are commonly irreversible may indicate sub-optimal rearing conditions (e.g., mechanical stress during hatching and rearing, environmental factors unless mentioned in crit. 3, aquatic pollutants, nutritional deficiencies) or a general incompatibility of the species with being farmed.

What is the probability of the species being malformed rarely?

It is low for minimal farming conditions, as malformation rates exceed 10%. It is medium for high-standard farming conditions, as some malformations result from conditions that may be changed (rearing intensity). Our conclusion is based on a low amount of evidence, as improvement of the situation by adjusting conditions needs more proof.

Likelihoodscore-li
Potentialscore-po
Certaintyscore-ce

Eggs:

  • WILD: no data found yet.
  • FARM: no data found yet.
  • LAB: no data found yet.

LARVAE and FRY:

  • WILD: no data found yet.
  • FARM: no data found yet.
  • LAB: malformations in 5% 35. For malformations and reproduction  W2.

JUVENILES:

  • WILD: deformed upper or lower jaw occasionally 17.
  • FARM: malformations of spine in 0-55% (mean 22%) 77, malformations in 84.7-85%, mainly of supraneural bones 9, malformations in 100%, mainly of neural arches and spines in pre-hemal and in cephalic vertebrae, with higher frequency of severe anomalies in intense than semi-intense rearing 10.
  • LAB: no data found yet.

ADULTS:

  • WILD: deformed upper or lower jaw occasionally 17.
  • FARM: JUVENILES.
  • LAB: no data found yet.

SPAWNERS:

  • WILD: no data found yet.
  • FARM: no data found yet.
  • LAB: no data found yet.



10  Slaughter

The cornerstone for a humane treatment is that slaughter a) immediately follows stunning (i.e., while the individual is unconscious), b) happens according to a clear and reproducible set of instructions verified under farming conditions, and c) avoids pain, suffering, and distress.

What is the probability of the species being slaughtered according to a humane slaughter protocol?

It is low for minimal farming conditions. It is high for high-standard farming conditions, as a) percussive stunning followed by bleeding or b) electrical stunning followed by percussive killing or followed by bleeding induce unconsciousness fast, kill while still unconscious, and are verified for the farming context. Our conclusion is based on a high amount of evidence.

Likelihoodscore-li
Potentialscore-po
Certaintyscore-ce

Eggs: does not apply.

LARVAE and FRY: does not apply.

JUVENILES:

  • WILD: does not apply.
  • FARM: common slaughter method: asphyxia in air or on ice, carbon dioxide, hypothermia in ice slurry, each followed by evisceration (small IND) or exsanguination and evisceration (large IND) 66. In small farms, sold live or fresh locally 78, so probably asphyxia. High-standard slaughter method: percussive or electrical stunning followed by evisceration (small IND) or followed by exsanguination and evisceration (large IND) 66. Wet electrical stunning (and slaughter) in rotary stunning unit, followed by ice slurry 79, percussive or electrical stunning (the latter sometimes followed by percussive killing) 80, electrical stunning or percussive stunning with a non-penetrating bolt followed by bleeding 12.
  • LAB: no vigorous escape attempts, but longer time to loss of visual evoked responses and afterwards loss of all physical movement in crushed ice (at 2 °C) than at 14 or 20 °C 81. Wet and dry electrical stunning 82.

ADULTS:

  • WILD: does not apply.
  • FARM: common slaughter method: asphyxia in air or in ice, carbon dioxide, hypothermia in ice slurry, each followed by evisceration (small IND) or exsanguination and evisceration (large IND) 66. In small farms, sold live or fresh locally 78, so probably asphyxia. High-standard slaughter method: percussive or electrical stunning followed by evisceration (small IND) or followed by exsanguination and evisceration (large IND) 66. Wet electrical stunning (and slaughter) in rotary stunning unit, followed by ice slurry 79, percussive or electrical stunning (the latter sometimes followed by percussive killing) 80, electrical stunning or percussive stunning with a non-penetrating bolt followed by bleeding 12. Tendency of lower stress under electrical stunning followed by percussion than under asphyxia in carbon monoxide 83, asphyxia in air in between 83.
  • LAB: no data found yet.

SPAWNERS:

  • WILD: does not apply.
  • FARM ADULTS.
  • LAB: no data found yet.



Side note: Domestication

Teletchea and Fontaine introduced 5 domestication levels illustrating how far species are from having their life cycle closed in captivity without wild input, how long they have been reared in captivity, and whether breeding programmes are in place.

What is the species’ domestication level?

DOMESTICATION LEVEL 5 84 85, fully domesticated. Cultured since late 19th century 3.




Side note: Forage fish in the feed

450-1,000 milliard wild-caught fishes end up being processed into fish meal and fish oil each year which contributes to overfishing and represents enormous suffering. There is a broad range of feeding types within species reared in captivity.

To what degree may fish meal and fish oil based on forage fish be replaced by non-forage fishery components (e.g., poultry blood meal) or sustainable sources (e.g., soybean cake)?

All age classes:

  • WILD: carnivorous (Rainbow trout) 86 87 19 (Rainbow and Steelhead trout) 62.
  • FARM: no data found yet.
  • LAB: FRY: fish meal in parallel to fish oil may be partly* replaced by sustainable sources 88. JUVENILES: fish meal may be mostly* 89, fish oil party* replaced by sustainable sources 90. Fish meal in parallel to fish oil may be partly* replaced by sustainable sources 88 or completely* if it had already been given for first feeding 7 months prior 91. ADULTS: fish meal may be mostly* replaced by sustainable sources 92.

*partly = <51% – mostly = 51-99% – completely = 100%




Glossary


ADULTS = mature individuals, for details Findings 10.1 Ontogenetic development
ALEVINS = larvae until the end of yolk sac absorption, for details Findings 10.1 Ontogenetic development
ANADROMOUS = migrating from the sea into fresh water to spawn
DOMESTICATION LEVEL 5 = selective breeding programmes are used focusing on specific goals 84
EURYHALINE = tolerant of a wide range of salinities
FARM = setting in farming environment or under conditions simulating farming environment in terms of size of facility or number of individuals
FISHES = Using "fishes" instead of "fish" for more than one individual - whether of the same species or not - is inspired by Jonathan Balcombe who proposed this usage in his book "What a fish knows". By referring to a group as "fishes", we acknowledge the individuals with their personalities and needs instead of an anonymous mass of "fish".
FRY = larvae from external feeding on, for details Findings 10.1 Ontogenetic development
GRILSE = adults returning from sea to home river to spawn, for details Findings 10.1 Ontogenetic development
IND = individuals
JUVENILES = fully developed but immature individuals, for details Findings 10.1 Ontogenetic development
KELTS = adults surviving spawning, for details Findings 10.1 Ontogenetic development
LAB = setting in laboratory environment
LARVAE = hatching to mouth opening, for details Findings 10.1 Ontogenetic development
PARR = juvenile stage in rivers, for details Findings 10.1 Ontogenetic development
PHOTOPERIOD = duration of daylight
POTAMODROMOUS = migrating within fresh water
SMOLTS = juvenile stage migrating to the sea, for details Findings 10.1 Ontogenetic development
SPAWNERS = adults during the spawning season; in farms: adults that are kept as broodstock
WILD = setting in the wild



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