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Malabar grouper

Epinephelus malabaricus

Epinephelus malabaricus (Malabar grouper)
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Distribution
Distribution map: Epinephelus malabaricus (Malabar grouper)

least concern



Information


Author: Maria Filipa Castanheira
Version: B | 1.1 (2021-12-23)


Reviewers: Pablo Arechavala-Lopez, Jenny Volstorf
Editor: Billo Heinzpeter Studer

Initial release: 2019-03-07
Version information:
  • Appearance: B
  • Last minor update: 2021-12-23

Cite as: »Castanheira, Maria Filipa. 2021. Epinephelus malabaricus (WelfareCheck | farm). In: fair-fish database, ed. fair-fish. World Wide Web electronic publication. First published 2019-03-07. Version B | 1.1. https://fair-fish-database.net.«





WelfareScore | farm

Epinephelus malabaricus
LiPoCe
Criteria
Home range
score-li
score-po
score-ce
Depth range
score-li
score-po
score-ce
Migration
score-li
score-po
score-ce
Reproduction
score-li
score-po
score-ce
Aggregation
score-li
score-po
score-ce
Aggression
score-li
score-po
score-ce
Substrate
score-li
score-po
score-ce
Stress
score-li
score-po
score-ce
Malformations
score-li
score-po
score-ce
Slaughter
score-li
score-po
score-ce


Legend

Condensed assessment of the species' likelihood and potential for good fish welfare in aquaculture, based on ethological findings for 10 crucial criteria.

  • Li = Likelihood that the individuals of the species experience good welfare under minimal farming conditions
  • Po = Potential of the individuals of the species to experience good welfare under high-standard farming conditions
  • Ce = Certainty of our findings in Likelihood and Potential

WelfareScore = Sum of criteria scoring "High" (max. 10)

score-legend
High
score-legend
Medium
score-legend
Low
score-legend
Unclear
score-legend
No findings



General remarks

Epinephelus malabaricus is a highly valued fish in Asian markets, farmed commercially in ponds and net cages. Its great potential comes from easy rearing, fast growth to commercial size, and excellent texture and flavour of its flesh. There are no FAO aquaculture statistics referring to E. malabaricus, and in general there is limited information on current farming conditions making it difficult to assess this species' potential in aquaculture. Several biological aspects such as reproduction without manipulation, sensitivity to handling, and humane slaughter are limiting welfare.




1  Home range

Many species traverse in a limited horizontal space (even if just for a certain period of time per year); the home range may be described as a species' understanding of its environment (i.e., its cognitive map) for the most important resources it needs access to.

What is the probability of providing the species' whole home range in captivity?

It is unclear for minimal and high-standard farming conditions. Our conclusion is based on a low amount of evidence.

Likelihoodscore-li
Potentialscore-po
Certaintyscore-ce

LARVAEWILD: no data found yetLAB: tanks: in Epinephelus marginatus, 6,000 L 1 and 60,000 L 1. Further research needed to establish whether this applies to E. malabaricus as well.

JUVENILES: WILD: no data found yetFARM: cages: 50 m3 2LAB: tanks: 4 m3 3; cages: 18 m3 4.

ADULTSWILDno data found yetFARM: JUVENILES.

SPAWNERS: WILD and FARM: no data found yet.




2  Depth range

Given the availability of resources (food, shelter) or the need to avoid predators, species spend their time within a certain depth range.

What is the probability of providing the species' whole depth range in captivity?

It is low for minimal and high-standard farming conditions. Our conclusion is based on a low amount of evidence.

Likelihoodscore-li
Potentialscore-po
Certaintyscore-ce

LARVAE: WILD and FARM: no data found yet.

JUVENILES: WILD: 0-150 m 5. Found nearshore and in estuaries 5 6. In E. marginatus, estuary populations in the Indo-Pacific 7. Further research needed to establish whether this applies to E. malabaricus as well. FARM: tanks: 1.5-2 m 8 9; cages: 2-3 m 8 9. LAB: tanks: 1.1 m 10; cages: 2 m 4.

ADULTS: JUVENILES.

SPAWNERS: WILD and FARM: no data found yet.




3  Migration

Some species undergo seasonal changes of environments for different purposes (feeding, spawning, etc.), and to move there, they migrate for more or less extensive distances.

What is the probability of providing farming conditions that are compatible with the migrating or habitat-changing behaviour of the species?

It is unclear for minimal and high-standard farming conditions. Our conclusion is based on a low amount of evidence.

Likelihoodscore-li
Potentialscore-po
Certaintyscore-ce

AMPHIDROMOUS 5.

LARVAE: WILD: found in a variety of habitats: coral and rocky reefs, tide pools, lagoons, estuaries, mangrove swamps, and sandy/mud bottom 5. FARM: brackish water 31-33 ppt 11For details of holding systems  crit. 1 and 2.

JUVENILESWILD:  LARVAEFARM: brackish water 20-32 ppt 2For details of holding systems  crit. 1 and 2.

ADULTSWILD:  LARVAEFARM JUVENILES.

SPAWNERSWILD:  LARVAEFARM: no data found yet.




4  Reproduction

A species reproduces at a certain age, season, and sex ratio and possibly involving courtship rituals.

What is the probability of the species reproducing naturally in captivity without manipulation of theses circumstances?

It is low for minimal farming conditions. It is medium for high-standard farming conditions. Our conclusion is based on a medium amount of evidence.

Likelihoodscore-li
Potentialscore-po
Certaintyscore-ce

WILD: 50% of the population mature at 79 cm (females) or 97-113 cm (males) 12. Spawn September-February 12. FARM: natural reproduction through shift of environmental stimuli 11 or induced reproduction through hormonal injections 13.




5  Aggregation

Species differ in the way they co-exist with conspecifics or other species from being solitary to aggregating unstructured, casually roaming in shoals or closely coordinating in schools of varying densities.

What is the probability of providing farming conditions that are compatible with the aggregation behaviour of the species?

It is unclear for minimal and high-standard farming conditions. Our conclusion is based on a low amount of evidence.

Likelihoodscore-li
Potentialscore-po
Certaintyscore-ce

LARVAE: WILD: no data found yet. FARM: tanks: 20-50 IND/L 11.

FRY: WILD: no data found yetFARM: 500-800 IND/m2 8.

JUVENILESWILD: solitary 14. FARM: cages: 30-125 IND/m3 8, 58-100 IND/m3 2.

ADULTS: JUVENILES.

SPAWNERS: WILD: spawning aggregations 15. FARM: no data found yet




6  Aggression

There is a range of adverse reactions in species, spanning from being relatively indifferent towards others to defending valuable resources (e.g., food, territory, mates) to actively attacking opponents.

What is the probability of the species being non-aggressive and non-territorial in captivity?

It is unclear for minimal and high-standard farming conditions. Our conclusion is based on a low amount of evidence.

Likelihoodscore-li
Potentialscore-po
Certaintyscore-ce

LARVAE: FARM: no data found yet. LAB: cannibalistic 16 17.

JUVENILES: FARM: no data found yet.

ADULTS: FARM: no data found yet.

SPAWNERS: FARM: no data found yet.




7  Substrate

Depending on where in the water column the species lives, it differs in interacting with or relying on various substrates for feeding or covering purposes (e.g., plants, rocks and stones, sand and mud).

What is the probability of providing the species' substrate and shelter needs in captivity?

It is low for minimal farming conditions. It is medium for high-standard farming conditions. Our conclusion is based on a low amount of evidence.

Likelihoodscore-li
Potentialscore-po
Certaintyscore-ce

LARVAE: WILD:  crit.3. FARM: for details of holding systems ➝ crit. 1.

JUVENILES: WILD:  crit.3. FARM: for details of holding systems ➝ crit. 1 and 2.

ADULTS: WILD:  crit.3. FARM:  JUVENILES.

SPAWNERS: WILD:  crit.3.  FARM: no data found yet.




8  Stress

Farming involves subjecting the species to diverse procedures (e.g., handling, air exposure, short-term confinement, short-term crowding, transport), sudden parameter changes or repeated disturbances (e.g., husbandry, size-grading).

What is the probability of the species not being stressed?

It is low for minimal farming conditions. It is medium for high-standard farming conditions. Our conclusion is based on a medium amount of evidence.

Likelihoodscore-li
Potentialscore-po
Certaintyscore-ce

LARVAE: stress-related disease due to poor environmental conditions, inadequate diet, poor husbandry techniques, and handling 18.

JUVENILES: stress-related disease due to poor environmental conditions, inadequate diet, poor husbandry techniques, and handling 18. Stressed by sudden salinity changes, namely 24 ppt to 14, 19, 29, and 34 ppt 19

ADULTS LARVAE.

SPAWNERS LARVAE.




9  Malformations

Deformities that – in contrast to diseases – are commonly irreversible may indicate sub-optimal rearing conditions (e.g., mechanical stress during hatching and rearing, environmental factors unless mentioned in crit. 3, aquatic pollutants, nutritional deficiencies) or a general incompatibility of the species with being farmed.

What is the probability of the species being malformed rarely?

It is unclear for minimal and high-standard farming conditions. Our conclusion is based on a low amount of evidence.

Likelihoodscore-li
Potentialscore-po
Certaintyscore-ce

LARVAE: FARM: exophthalmia 18, hyper-inflated swim bladder 18. Further research needed on frequency of malformations.

JUVENILES: FARM: skeletal deformations 20, hyper-inflated swim bladder 18. Further research needed on frequency of malformations. LAB: in E. marginatus, 75.8% skeletal deformations when reared at 28 IND/L as LARVAE 1. Further research needed to determine whether this applies to E. malabaricus as well.

ADULTS: FARM: hyper-inflated swim bladder 18. Further research needed on frequency of malformations.

SPAWNERS LARVAE.




10  Slaughter

The cornerstone for a humane treatment is that slaughter a) immediately follows stunning (i.e., while the individual is unconscious), b) happens according to a clear and reproducible set of instructions verified under farming conditions, and c) avoids pain, suffering, and distress.

What is the probability of the species being slaughtered according to a humane slaughter protocol?

It is low for minimal and high-standard farming conditions. Our conclusion is based on a low amount of evidence.

Likelihoodscore-li
Potentialscore-po
Certaintyscore-ce

Common slaughter method: hypothermia in ice-water slurry 4. High-standard slaughter method: no data found yet.




Side note: Domestication

Teletchea and Fontaine introduced 5 domestication levels illustrating how far species are from having their life cycle closed in captivity without wild input, how long they have been reared in captivity, and whether breeding programmes are in place.

What is the species’ domestication level?

DOMESTICATION LEVEL 2 21, level 5 being fully domesticated.




Side note: Forage fish in the feed

450-1,000 milliard wild-caught fishes end up being processed into fish meal and fish oil each year which contributes to overfishing and represents enormous suffering. There is a broad range of feeding types within species reared in captivity.

To what degree may fish meal and fish oil based on forage fish be replaced by non-forage fishery components (e.g., poultry blood meal) or sustainable sources (e.g., soybean cake)?

All age classes: WILD: carnivorous 22. FARM: fish meal and fish oil may be partly* replaced by non-forage fishery components 23 24 25.

* partly = <51% – mostly = 51-99% – completely = 100%




Glossary


ADULTS = mature individuals, for details Findings 10.1 Ontogenetic development
AMPHIDROMOUS = migrating between fresh water and sea independent of spawning
DOMESTICATION LEVEL 2 = part of the life cycle closed in captivity, also known as capture-based aquaculture 21
FARM = setting in farming environment or under conditions simulating farming environment in terms of size of facility or number of individuals
FRY = larvae from external feeding on, for details Findings 10.1 Ontogenetic development
IND = individuals
JUVENILES = fully developed but immature individuals, for details Findings 10.1 Ontogenetic development
LAB = setting in laboratory environment
LARVAE = hatching to mouth opening, for details Findings 10.1 Ontogenetic development
SPAWNERS = adults during the spawning season; in farms: adults that are kept as broodstock
WILD = setting in the wild



Bibliography


1 Boglione, Clara, Giovanna Marino, Maurizio Giganti, Alessandro Longobardi, Paolo De Marzi, and Stefano Cataudella. 2009. Skeletal anomalies in dusky grouper Epinephelus marginatus (Lowe 1834) juveniles reared with different methodologies and larval densities. Aquaculture 291: 48–60. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquaculture.2009.02.041.
2 Tookwinas, S. 1989. Review of grow-out techniques under tropical conditions: Experience of Thailand on seabass (Lates calcarifer ) and grouper (Epinephelus malabaricus). Actes de colloques Ifremer 9,chap 67. Tahiti, French Polynesia.
3 Boglione, Clara, Enric Gisbert, Paulo Gavaia, Paul E. Witten, Mori Moren, Stéphanie Fontagné, and Giorgos Koumoundouros. 2013. Skeletal anomalies in reared European fish larvae and juveniles. Part 2: main typologies, occurrences and causative factors. Reviews in Aquaculture 5: S121–S167. https://doi.org/10.1111/raq.12016.
4 Badhul Haq, M.A., M. Srinivasan, R. Vignesh, R. Shalini, and K.H. Brajamani Meetei. 2011. Cage culture of Epinephelus malabaricus (Bloch and Scheneider, 1801) in Mandapam coastal waters (Southeast Coast of India). INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES 2.
5 Heemstra, P. C., and J.E. Randall. 1993. FAO species catalogue. Vol. 16. Groupers of the world (family Serranidae, subfamily Epinephelinae). An annotated and illustrated catalogue of the grouper, rockcod, hind, coral grouper and lyretail species known to date. Vol. 16. FAO Fisheries Synopsis 125. Rome, Italy: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.
6 Sheaves, M. 1995. Large lutjanid and serranid fishes in tropical estuaries:Are they adults or juveniles? Marine Ecology Progress Series 129: 31–41. https://doi.org/10.3354/meps129031.
7 Pollard, D.A., P. Afonso, A.A. Bertoncini, S. Fennessy, P. Francour, and J. Barreiros. 2018. Epinephelus marginatus. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. International Union for Conservation of Nature.
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9 Baliao, D. D., E. M. Rodriguez, and D. D. Gerochi. 1981. Culture of grey mullet, Mugil cephalus, Linnaeus in brackishwater ponds at two stocking densities. SEAFDEC Aquaculture Department Quarterly Research Report 5: 12–17.
10 Mathew, G., N.K. Sanil, and K.M. Venugopal. 2000. Observations on the growth of Epinephelus malabaricus (Bloch and Schneider) in the onshore recirculating seawater system. Journal of the Marine Biological Association of India 42: 190–193.
11 Tookwinas, S. 1989. Review of knowledge on Grouper aquaculture in South East Asia. Actes de colloques Ifremer 9,chap 40. Tahiti, French Polynesia.
12 Gaspare, Lydia, and Ian Bryceson. 2013. Reproductive Biology and Fishery-Related Characteristics of the Malabar Grouper (Epinephelus malabaricus) Caught in the Coastal Waters of Mafia Island, Tanzania. Journal of Marine Biology: 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1155/2013/786589.
13 Chulavitayarukool, P., C. Puthinuawarat, and N. Sutemechaikul. 1985. Study on the artificial propagation of grouper, Epinephelus malabaricus (Bloch and Schineder). In , 9–21.
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15 Kandula, Sujatha, Kantimahanti V. L. Shrikanya, and V. A. Iswarya Deepti. 2015. Species diversity and some aspects of reproductive biology and life history of groupers (Pisces: Serranidae: Epinephelinae) off the central eastern coast of India. Marine Biology Research 11: 18–33. https://doi.org/10.1080/17451000.2014.949271.
16 Leu, Ming-Yih, Chyng-Hwa Liou, and Lee-Shing Fang. 2005. Embryonic and larval development of the malabar grouper, epinephelus malabaricus (pisces: serranidae). Journal of the Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom 85: 1249–1254.
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19 Tsui, Wen-Ching, Jiann-Chu Chen, and Sha-Yen Cheng. 2012. The effects of a sudden salinity change on cortisol, glucose, lactate, and osmolality levels in grouper Epinephelus malabaricus. Fish Physiology and Biochemistry 38: 1323–1329. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10695-012-9620-6.
20 Engrácia Filho, J. R., M. T. Shimada, J. Yunis-Aguinaga, F. C. Ramos-Espinoza, F. R. Moraes, and J. R. E. Moraes. 2018. Deformities in reared cobia, Rachycentron canadum L. and grouper, Epinephelus marginatus, in São Paulo state coast, Brazil: case report. Arquivo Brasileiro de Medicina Veterinária e Zootecnia 70: 1565–1568. https://doi.org/10.1590/1678-4162-10251.
21 Teletchea, Fabrice, and Pascal Fontaine. 2012. Levels of domestication in fish: implications for the sustainable future of aquaculture. Fish and Fisheries 15: 181–195. https://doi.org/10.1111/faf.12006.
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23 Cheng, Zhenyan, Siqi Chen, Maolin An, Qingkui Wang, Jinhui Sun, Zhenzhen Fang, and Kezhi Xing. 2018. Effects of replacing fish meal with soybean meal, with or without dietary arginine, on growth performance, immune indices and intestinal morphology of grouper, Epinephelus malabaricus. Aquaculture Research 49: 2954–2964. https://doi.org/10.1111/are.13754.
24 Li, Kai, Yan Wang, Zhou-Xing Zheng, Rui-Li Jiang, Ning-Xia Xie, and Dominique P. Bureau. 2009. Replacing Fish Meal with Rendered Animal Protein Ingredients in Diets for Malabar Grouper, Epinephelus malabaricus, Reared in Net Pens. Journal of the World Aquaculture Society 40: 67–75. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1749-7345.2008.00227.x.
25 Wang, Yan, Kai Li, Hua Han, Zhou-Xin Zheng, and Dominique P. Bureau. 2008. Potential of using a blend of rendered animal protein ingredients to replace fish meal in practical diets for malabar grouper (Epinephelus malabricus). Aquaculture 281: 113–117. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquaculture.2008.03.033.


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