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Dover sole

Solea solea

Solea solea (Dover sole)
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Distribution
Distribution map: Solea solea (Dover sole)

data deficient



Information


Author: Maria Filipa Castanheira
Version: B | 1.1 (2021-12-23)

Please note: This part of the profile is currently being revised.


Reviewers: Pablo Arechavala-Lopez, Jenny Volstorf
Editor: Billo Heinzpeter Studer

Initial release: 2017-11-07
Version information:
  • Appearance: B
  • Last minor update: 2021-12-23

Cite as: »Castanheira, Maria Filipa. 2021. Solea solea (WelfareCheck | farm). In: fair-fish database, ed. fair-fish. World Wide Web electronic publication. First published 2017-11-07. Version B | 1.1. https://fair-fish-database.net.«





WelfareScore | farm

Solea solea
LiPoCe
Criteria
Home range
score-li
score-po
score-ce
Depth range
score-li
score-po
score-ce
Migration
score-li
score-po
score-ce
Reproduction
score-li
score-po
score-ce
Aggregation
score-li
score-po
score-ce
Aggression
score-li
score-po
score-ce
Substrate
score-li
score-po
score-ce
Stress
score-li
score-po
score-ce
Malformations
score-li
score-po
score-ce
Slaughter
score-li
score-po
score-ce


Legend

Condensed assessment of the species' likelihood and potential for good fish welfare in aquaculture, based on ethological findings for 10 crucial criteria.

  • Li = Likelihood that the individuals of the species experience good welfare under minimal farming conditions
  • Po = Potential of the individuals of the species to experience good welfare under high-standard farming conditions
  • Ce = Certainty of our findings in Likelihood and Potential

WelfareScore = Sum of criteria scoring "High" (max. 10)

score-legend
High
score-legend
Medium
score-legend
Low
score-legend
Unclear
score-legend
No findings



General remarks

Solea solea is a flatfish living in shallow water on or close to the sea floor. It burrows into sandy or muddy bottoms. With sympatric distribution from the Bay of Biscay to Senegal and the western Mediterranean, S. solea extends its distribution from Norway and the western Baltic to Senegal, including the Mediterranean. Increase in production started in 1970 due to a significant increase in research for the improvement and intensification of the species production. The current available breeding techniques need to be optimised regarding the importance of sandy substrate, stress susceptibility, malformation, and slaughter. In addition, further research is urgent regarding home range, reproduction, and aggregation behaviour. 




1  Home range

Many species traverse in a limited horizontal space (even if just for a certain period of time per year); the home range may be described as a species' understanding of its environment (i.e., its cognitive map) for the most important resources it needs access to.

What is the probability of providing the species' whole home range in captivity?

It is unclear for minimal and high-standard farming conditions. Our conclusion is based on a low amount of evidence.

Likelihoodscore-li
Potentialscore-po
Certaintyscore-ce

LARVAE: WILD: no data found yet. FARM: tanks: various sizes 1 2.

JUVENILES: WILD: no data found yet. FARM: tanks: various sizes 1 2; raceways: 4 x 0.4 m 2.

ADULTS: WILD: no data found yet. FARM: JUVENILES.

SPAWNERS: WILD: no data found yet. FARM: tanks: 3-17 m3 diameter 3 2 4.




2  Depth range

Given the availability of resources (food, shelter) or the need to avoid predators, species spend their time within a certain depth range.

What is the probability of providing the species' whole depth range in captivity?

It is low for minimal farming conditions. It is medium for high-standard farming conditions. Our conclusion is based on a medium amount of evidence.

Likelihoodscore-li
Potentialscore-po
Certaintyscore-ce

LARVAE: WILD: PELAGIC, usually <10 m 5 6. FARM: 0.8-2 m 7.

JUVENILES: WILD: caught at 0-40 m 5 8 9. FARM: tanks: variable depth range 1 2; raceways: at 20-100 mg: 0.01 m 2, at 1-30 g: 0.03 m 2.

ADULTS: JUVENILES.

SPAWNERS: WILD: usually 40-100 m 10 11. FARM: <1 m 12 4.




3  Migration

Some species undergo seasonal changes of environments for different purposes (feeding, spawning, etc.), and to move there, they migrate for more or less extensive distances.

What is the probability of providing farming conditions that are compatible with the migrating or habitat-changing behaviour of the species?

It is low for minimal farming conditions. It is medium for high-standard farming conditions. Our conclusion is based on a medium amount of evidence.

Likelihoodscore-li
Potentialscore-po
Certaintyscore-ce

OCEANODROMOUS 5 13 14 15.

LARVAE: WILD: residents 16. FARM: .

JUVENILES: WILD: residents 5 13 14 15. FARM: .

ADULTS: WILD: migration between deeper waters and coastal feeding areas 17 18 9. FARM: .

SPAWNERS: WILD: offshore migrations to deeper waters 17 18 9. FARM: .




4  Reproduction

A species reproduces at a certain age, season, and sex ratio and possibly involving courtship rituals.

What is the probability of the species reproducing naturally in captivity without manipulation of theses circumstances?

It is low for minimal farming conditions. It is medium for high-standard farming conditions. Our conclusion is based on a medium amount of evidence.

Likelihoodscore-li
Potentialscore-po
Certaintyscore-ce

WILD: spawn February-May 19 20. FARM: wild broodstock spawn naturally in captivity 3 12 2.




5  Aggregation

Species differ in the way they co-exist with conspecifics or other species from being solitary to aggregating unstructured, casually roaming in shoals or closely coordinating in schools of varying densities.

What is the probability of providing farming conditions that are compatible with the aggregation behaviour of the species?

It is unclear for minimal farming conditions. It is medium for high-standard farming conditions. Our conclusion is based on a low amount of evidence.

Likelihoodscore-li
Potentialscore-po
Certaintyscore-ce

LARVAEWILD and FARMno data found yet.

JUVENILES: WILD: no data found yet. FARM: 2-500 IND/m2 1 2; at <100 g: <10 kg/m2 maximum 21; 2-25 kg/m2 4.

ADULTS: WILD: can form dense aggregations at low temperature 5. FARM: JUVENILES.

SPAWNERS: WILD: no data found yet. FARM: <5 kg/m2 2.




6  Aggression

There is a range of adverse reactions in species, spanning from being relatively indifferent towards others to defending valuable resources (e.g., food, territory, mates) to actively attacking opponents.

What is the probability of the species being non-aggressive and non-territorial in captivity?

It is unclear for minimal farming conditions. It is medium for high-standard farming conditions. Our conclusion is based on a low amount of evidence.

Likelihoodscore-li
Potentialscore-po
Certaintyscore-ce

LARVAE: no data found yet

JUVENILES: hierarchic structure promotes competition at high stocking density 21 22

ADULTS: JUVENILES

SPAWNERS: no data found yet




7  Substrate

Depending on where in the water column the species lives, it differs in interacting with or relying on various substrates for feeding or covering purposes (e.g., plants, rocks and stones, sand and mud).

What is the probability of providing the species' substrate and shelter needs in captivity?

It is low for minimal farming conditions. It is medium for high-standard farming conditions. Our conclusion is based on a medium amount of evidence.

Likelihoodscore-li
Potentialscore-po
Certaintyscore-ce

Eggs and LARVAE: WILD and FARM: no data found yet.

JUVENILES: WILD: mainly on sandy bottoms 23 24 6 25. FARM: Solea senegalensis and Scophthalmus maximus usually reared without sand 26 27. Further research needed to determine whether this applies to Solea solea as well. For details of holding systems crit. 1 and 2.

ADULTS: ➝ JUVENILES.

SPAWNERS: WILD: mainly on sandy bottoms 5. FARM: use of covers and shades in Solea senegalensis 28. Further research needed to determine whether this applies to S. solea as well. For details of holding systems crit. 1 and 2.




8  Stress

Farming involves subjecting the species to diverse procedures (e.g., handling, air exposure, short-term confinement, short-term crowding, transport), sudden parameter changes or repeated disturbances (e.g., husbandry, size-grading).

What is the probability of the species not being stressed?

It is low for minimal farming conditions. It is medium for high-standard farming conditions. Our conclusion is based on a low amount of evidence.

Likelihoodscore-li
Potentialscore-po
Certaintyscore-ce

LARVAE: stressed by deficient nutrition 29 30 31.

JUVENILES: no data found yet.

ADULTS: no data found yet.

SPAWNERS: no data found yet.




9  Malformations

Deformities that – in contrast to diseases – are commonly irreversible may indicate sub-optimal rearing conditions (e.g., mechanical stress during hatching and rearing, environmental factors unless mentioned in crit. 3, aquatic pollutants, nutritional deficiencies) or a general incompatibility of the species with being farmed.

What is the probability of the species being malformed rarely?

It is low for minimal farming conditions. It is medium for high-standard farming conditions. Our conclusion is based on a medium amount of evidence.

Likelihoodscore-li
Potentialscore-po
Certaintyscore-ce

LARVAEWILD and FARM: no data found yet. LAB: 23% malformed dermal papillae, oral jaw apparatus, and malpigmented 32; 18-35% malpigmented due to deficient nutrition 30.

JUVENILES: WILD: abnormal otoliths 33 and malpigmented 34 35FARMno data found yet. LAB: 23% malformed dermal papillae, oral jaw apparatus, and malpigmented due to suppression of epigenetic mechanisms at early life stages 32.

ADULTSWILD and LAB: JUVENILES. FARMno data found yet.




10  Slaughter

The cornerstone for a humane treatment is that slaughter a) immediately follows stunning (i.e., while the individual is unconscious), b) happens according to a clear and reproducible set of instructions verified under farming conditions, and c) avoids pain, suffering, and distress.

What is the probability of the species being slaughtered according to a humane slaughter protocol?

It is low for minimal farming conditions. It is medium for high-standard farming conditions. Our conclusion is based on a medium amount of evidence.

Likelihoodscore-li
Potentialscore-po
Certaintyscore-ce

Common slaughter method: hypothermia in ice-water slurry 36 37. High-standard slaughter method: indications that head-first electrical stunning after >1 s (152.4 ± 0.5 Vrms) and placement in ice water for 10 min was 92% effective 38 37. Further research needed to confirm for farming conditions.




Side note: Domestication

Teletchea and Fontaine introduced 5 domestication levels illustrating how far species are from having their life cycle closed in captivity without wild input, how long they have been reared in captivity, and whether breeding programmes are in place.

What is the species’ domestication level?

DOMESTICATION LEVEL 3 39, level 5 being fully domesticated.




Side note: Forage fish in the feed

450-1,000 milliard wild-caught fishes end up being processed into fish meal and fish oil each year which contributes to overfishing and represents enormous suffering. There is a broad range of feeding types within species reared in captivity.

To what degree may fish meal and fish oil based on forage fish be replaced by non-forage fishery components (e.g., poultry blood meal) or sustainable sources (e.g., soybean cake)?

All age classes: WILD: carnivorous 40 41 42. FARM: in Solea senegalensis, fish meal and fish oil may be partlyreplaced by non-forage fishery components 43 44 45 46 47 48. Further research needed to determine whether this applies to S. solea as well.

partly = <51% – mostly = 51-99% – completely = 100%




Glossary


ADULTS = mature individuals, for details Findings 10.1 Ontogenetic development
DOMESTICATION LEVEL 3 = entire life cycle closed in captivity with wild inputs 39
FARM = setting in farming environment or under conditions simulating farming environment in terms of size of facility or number of individuals
IND = individuals
JUVENILES = fully developed but immature individuals, for details Findings 10.1 Ontogenetic development
LAB = setting in laboratory environment
LARVAE = hatching to mouth opening, for details Findings 10.1 Ontogenetic development
OCEANODROMOUS = living and migrating in the sea
PELAGIC = living independent of bottom and shore of a body of water
SPAWNERS = adults during the spawning season; in farms: adults that are kept as broodstock
WILD = setting in the wild



Bibliography


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