Information
Version: B | 1.5 (2022-08-15)
WelfareScore | farm
Condensed assessment of the species' likelihood and potential for good fish welfare in aquaculture, based on ethological findings for 10 crucial criteria.
- Li = Likelihood that the individuals of the species experience good welfare under minimal farming conditions
- Po = Potential of the individuals of the species to experience good welfare under high-standard farming conditions
- Ce = Certainty of our findings in Likelihood and Potential
WelfareScore = Sum of criteria scoring "High" (max. 10)
General remarks
Hypophthalmichthys nobilis is one of the four Chinese major carps, together with H. molitrix, Ctenopharyngodon idella and Mylopharyngodon piceus. H. nobilis is a native freshwater fish from lakes, rivers, and reservoirs of south and central China, but has already been introduced in many countries. This eurythermic carp dwells in the upper layer of the water column, being considered a planktivorous fish – especially feeding on zooplankton – but it can also feed on detritus and BENTHIC organisms on the bottom opportunistically. It is one important aquaculture species that has been farmed for more than a thousand years and, together with H. molitrix, is one of the most intensively cultured fish species in Asia. H. nobilis is frequently used as a filter-feeding fish in polyculture ponds in China, stocked for water quality improvement and as a biocontrol method for phytoplankton. Besides ponds, this carp is also commonly raised in pens, cages or reservoirs with other carps or other fish species as Ictalurus punctatus and Polyodon spathula. A competition for food may be expected with Labeo catla or with other FISHES with similar feeding habits in such polycultures. It is a fast growing fish that can be sold before reaching maturity. In natural conditions, this carp migrates to the upper reaches of rivers to spawn during early summer, with rising water level as the essential stimulus for this. Despite its commercial importance, most wild information is still missing for this species. After being harvested, very little handling and processing is used with this fish, as it is usually consumed fresh, mainly locally. Further research about the slaughtering process is needed as well as about substrate use, stress response, and malformations under farming conditions.
Note: The age class "Adults" for farming conditions refers to large juveniles and young adults due to farmers estimating age class by size rather than by maturity status. Also, “Adults” refers to individuals to become spawners or for algae control, as the literature does not always specify.
1 Home range
Many species traverse in a limited horizontal space (even if just for a certain period of time per year); the home range may be described as a species' understanding of its environment (i.e., its cognitive map) for the most important resources it needs access to.
What is the probability of providing the species' whole home range in captivity?
It is low for minimal farming conditions. It is medium for high-standard farming conditions. Our conclusion is based on a medium amount of evidence.2 Depth range
Given the availability of resources (food, shelter) or the need to avoid predators, species spend their time within a certain depth range.
What is the probability of providing the species' whole depth range in captivity?
It is low for minimal farming conditions. It is medium for high-standard farming conditions. Our conclusion is based on a medium amount of evidence.3 Migration
Some species undergo seasonal changes of environments for different purposes (feeding, spawning, etc.), and to move there, they migrate for more or less extensive distances.
What is the probability of providing farming conditions that are compatible with the migrating or habitat-changing behaviour of the species?
It is low for minimal farming conditions. It is medium for high-standard farming conditions. Our conclusion is based on a medium amount of evidence.4 Reproduction
A species reproduces at a certain age, season, and sex ratio and possibly involving courtship rituals.
What is the probability of the species reproducing naturally in captivity without manipulation of theses circumstances?
It is low for minimal and high-standard farming conditions. Our conclusion is based on a high amount of evidence.5 Aggregation
Species differ in the way they co-exist with conspecifics or other species from being solitary to aggregating unstructured, casually roaming in shoals or closely coordinating in schools of varying densities.
What is the probability of providing farming conditions that are compatible with the aggregation behaviour of the species?
It is unclear for minimal and high-standard farming conditions. Our conclusion is based on a medium amount of evidence.6 Aggression
There is a range of adverse reactions in species, spanning from being relatively indifferent towards others to defending valuable resources (e.g., food, territory, mates) to actively attacking opponents.
What is the probability of the species being non-aggressive and non-territorial in captivity?
It is unclear for minimal and high-standard farming conditions. Our conclusion is based on a low amount of evidence.7 Substrate
Depending on where in the water column the species lives, it differs in interacting with or relying on various substrates for feeding or covering purposes (e.g., plants, rocks and stones, sand and mud, turbidity).
What is the probability of providing the species' substrate and shelter needs in captivity?
It is low for minimal farming conditions. It is medium for high-standard farming conditions. Our conclusion is based on a medium amount of evidence.8 Stress
Farming involves subjecting the species to diverse procedures (e.g., handling, air exposure, short-term confinement, short-term crowding, transport), sudden parameter changes or repeated disturbances (e.g., husbandry, size-grading).
What is the probability of the species not being stressed?
There are no findings for minimal and high-standard farming conditions.9 Malformations
Deformities that – in contrast to diseases – are commonly irreversible may indicate sub-optimal rearing conditions (e.g., mechanical stress during hatching and rearing, environmental factors unless mentioned in crit. 3, aquatic pollutants, nutritional deficiencies) or a general incompatibility of the species with being farmed.
What is the probability of the species being malformed rarely?
It is unclear for minimal and high-standard farming conditions. Our conclusion is based on a low amount of evidence.10 Slaughter
The cornerstone for a humane treatment is that slaughter a) immediately follows stunning (i.e., while the individual is unconscious), b) happens according to a clear and reproducible set of instructions verified under farming conditions, and c) avoids pain, suffering, and distress.
What is the probability of the species being slaughtered according to a humane slaughter protocol?
It is low for minimal farming conditions. It is medium for high-standard farming conditions. Our conclusion is based on a low amount of evidence.Side note: Domestication
Teletchea and Fontaine introduced 5 domestication levels illustrating how far species are from having their life cycle closed in captivity without wild input, how long they have been reared in captivity, and whether breeding programmes are in place.
What is the species’ domestication level?
DOMESTICATION LEVEL 5 38, fully domesticated.
Side note: Forage fish in the feed
450-1,000 milliard wild-caught fishes end up being processed into fish meal and fish oil each year which contributes to overfishing and represents enormous suffering. There is a broad range of feeding types within species reared in captivity.
To what degree may fish meal and fish oil based on forage fish be replaced by non-forage fishery components (e.g., poultry blood meal) or sustainable sources (e.g., soybean cake)?
All age classes: WILD: planktonic feeder, mainly on zooplankton 3 25 26 23, but can also eat detritus 21-22 23. FARM: no additional feed in polyculture or extensive culture, but applied fertiliser (animal manure or plant wastes) increases zooplankton mass 25. Zooplankton feeder 25 17, but can also feed on phytoplankton 17, especially when cultured in cages 4 5, probably by filter-feeding 5. All age classes accept artificial feed (e.g., by-products from grain processing, trout pellets) 25 4.
Glossary
BENTHIC = living at the bottom of a body of water, able to rest on the floor
DOMESTICATION LEVEL 5 = selective breeding programmes are used focusing on specific goals 38
FARM = setting in farming environment or under conditions simulating farming environment in terms of size of facility or number of individuals
FISHES = Using "fishes" instead of "fish" for more than one individual - whether of the same species or not - is inspired by Jonathan Balcombe who proposed this usage in his book "What a fish knows". By referring to a group as "fishes", we acknowledge the individuals with their personalities and needs instead of an anonymous mass of "fish".
FRY = larvae from external feeding on, for details ➝ Findings 10.1 Ontogenetic development
IND = individuals
JUVENILES = fully developed but immature individuals, for details ➝ Findings 10.1 Ontogenetic development
LARVAE = hatching to mouth opening, for details ➝ Findings 10.1 Ontogenetic development
NTU = Nephelometric Turbidity Units
PHOTOPERIOD = duration of daylight
POTAMODROMOUS = migrating within fresh water
SPAWNERS = adults during the spawning season; in farms: adults that are kept as broodstock
WILD = setting in the wild
Bibliography
2 Green, B. W., and R. O. Smitherman. 1984. Relative growth, survival and harvestability of bighead carp, silver carp, and their reciprocal hybrids. Aquaculture 37: 87–95. https://doi.org/10.1016/0044-8486(84)90046-2.
3 Jhingran, V.G., and R.S.V. Pullin. 1985. A hatchery manual for the common, Chinese and Indian major carps. Vol. 252. ICLARM Studies and Reviews 11. Asian Development Bank and International Center for Living Aquatic Resources Management.
4 Cremer, M. C., and R. O. Smitherman. 1980. Food habits and growth of silver and bighead carp in cages and ponds. Aquaculture 20: 57–64. https://doi.org/10.1016/0044-8486(80)90061-7.
5 Opuszynski, K., J. V. Shireman, and C. E. Cichra. 1991. Food assimilation and filtering rate of bighead carp kept in cages. Hydrobiologia 220: 49–56. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00017491.
6 Lieberman, D. M. 1996. Use of Silver Carp (Hypophthalmichthys molotrix) and Bighead Carp (Aristichthys nobilis) for Algae Control in a Small Pond: Changes in Water Quality. Journal of Freshwater Ecology 11: 391–397. https://doi.org/10.1080/02705060.1996.9664466.
7 Engle, C., and D. Brown. 1998. Growth, Yield, Dressout, and Net Returns of Bighead Carp Hypophthalmichthys nobilis Stocked at Three Densities in Catfish Ictalurus punctatus Ponds. Journal of the World Aquaculture Society 29: 414–421. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1749-7345.1998.tb00665.x.
8 Engle, C. R., and D. Brown. 1999. Growth, Yield, Dressout, and Net Returns of Bighead Carp Hypophthalmichthys nobilis Stocked at Three Densities in Fertilized Earthen Ponds. Journal of the World Aquaculture Society 30: 371–379. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1749-7345.1999.tb00688.x.
9 Afzal, M., A. Rab, N. Akhtar, I. Ahmed, M. F. Khan, and M. Qayyum. 2008. Growth performance of Bighead carp Aristichthys nobilis (Richardson) in monoculture system with and without supplementary feeding. Pakistan Veterinary Journal 28: 57–62.
10 Nikolova, L. N., K. T. Dochin, G. K. Grozev, and E. I. Paskaleva. 2008. Influence of the Vegetation of the Plankton on the Growth of the Bighead Carp While Being Bred in Autochthonous Polyculture Along with Common Carp and Grass Carp. Acta Zoologica Bulgaria Suppl. 2: 193–200.
11 Coulter, D. P., E. P. Tristano, A. A. Coulter, J. R. Seibert, and J. E. Garvey. 2018. Role of winter severity on juvenile Bighead Carp and Silver Carp growth and survival across latitudes. Biological Invasions 20: 3357–3371. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10530-018-1781-5.
12 Zhu, Y. J., X. M. Li, and D. G. Yang. 2014. Food preference of paddlefish, Polyodon spathula (Walbaum, 1792), in polyculture with bighead carp Aristichthys nobilis (Richardson, 1845) in non-fed ponds. Journal of Applied Ichthyology 30: 1596–1601. https://doi.org/10.1111/jai.12590.
13 Santiago, C. B., and A. C. Gonzal. 2000. Effect of prepared diet and vitamins A, E and C supplementation on the reproductive performance of cage‐reared bighead carp Aristichthys nobilis (Richardson). Journal of Applied Ichthyology 16: 8–13. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1439-0426.2000.00137.x.
14 Santiago, C. B., A. S. Camacho, and M. A. Laron. 1991. Growth and reproductive performance of bighead carp (Aristichthys nobilis) reared with or without feeding in floating cages. Aquaculture 96: 109–117. https://doi.org/10.1016/0044-8486(91)90143-U.
15 Engle, C. R. 1982. Growth of Fed and Unfed Bighead Carp in Cages at Two Stocking Densities. The Progressive Fish-Culturist 44: 216–217. https://doi.org/10.1577/1548-8659(1982)44[216:GOFAUB]2.0.CO;2.
16 Taylor, R. M., M. A. Pegg, and J. H. Chick. 2005. Response of bighead carp to a bioacoustic behavioural fish guidance system. Fisheries Management and Ecology 12: 283–286. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2400.2005.00446.x.
17 Ke, Z., P. Xie, and L. Guo. 2008. In situ study on effect of food competition on diet shifts and growth of silver and bighead carps in large biomanipulation fish pens in Meiliang Bay, Lake Taihu. Journal of Applied Ichthyology 24: 263–268. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1439-0426.2008.01060.x.
18 Peters, L. M., M. A. Pegg, and U. G. Reinhardt. 2006. Movements of Adult Radio-Tagged Bighead Carp in the Illinois River. Transactions of the American Fisheries Society 135: 1205–1212. https://doi.org/10.1577/T05-162.1.
19 DeGrandchamp, K. L., J. E. Garvey, and R. E. Colombo. 2008. Movement and Habitat Selection by Invasive Asian Carps in a Large River. Transactions of the American Fisheries Society 137: 45–56. https://doi.org/10.1577/T06-116.1.
20 Afzal, M., A. Rab, N. Akhtar, M. F. Khan, S. U. Khan, and M. Qayyum. 2008. Induced spawning of bighead carp, Aristichthys nobilis (Richardson), by using different hormones/hormonal analogues. Pakistan Journal of Zoology 40: 283–287.
21 Chen, S. 1982. [Studies on the feeding spectrum of Silver Carp and Bighead Carp fingerlings in Lake Donghu (China). (in Chinese)]. Reservoir Fisheries of China 3: 21–26.
22 Zhang, Hongyan, Edward S. Rutherford, Doran M. Mason, Jason T. Breck, Marion E. Wittmann, Roger M. Cooke, David M. Lodge, John D. Rothlisberger, Xinhua Zhu, and Timothy B. Johnson. 2016. Forecasting the Impacts of Silver and Bighead Carp on the Lake Erie Food Web. Transactions of the American Fisheries Society 145: 136–162. https://doi.org/10.1080/00028487.2015.1069211.
23 Jayasinghe, U. A. D., E. García-Berthou, Z. Li, W. Li, T. Zhang, and J. Liu. 2015. Co-occurring bighead and silver carps show similar food preference but different isotopic niche overlap in different lakes. Environmental Biology of Fishes 98: 1185–1199. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10641-014-0351-7.
24 Hintz, W. D., D. C. Glover, B. C. Szynkowski, and J. E. Garvey. 2017. Spatiotemporal Reproduction and Larval Habitat Associations of Nonnative Silver Carp and Bighead Carp. Transactions of the American Fisheries Society 146: 422–431. https://doi.org/10.1080/00028487.2017.1281167.
25 Weimin, M. Cultured Aquatic Species Information Programme. Hypophthalmichthys nobilis. Rome: FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Department.
26 Xie, P., and Y. Yang. 2000. Long-term changes of Copepoda community (1957–1996) in a subtropical Chinese lake stocked densely with planktivorous filter-feeding silver and bighead carp. Journal of Plankton Research 22: 1757–1778. https://doi.org/10.1093/plankt/22.9.1757.
27 Papoulias, D. M., D. Chapman, and D. E. Tillitt. 2006. Reproductive condition and occurrence of intersex in bighead carp and silver carp in the Missouri River. Hydrobiologia 571: 355–360. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10750-006-0260-7.
28 Schrank, S. J., C. S. Guy, and J. F. Fairchild. 2003. Competitive Interactions between Age-0 Bighead Carp and Paddlefish. Transactions of the American Fisheries Society 132: 1222–1228. https://doi.org/10.1577/T02-071.
29 Chang, W. Y. B., J. S. Diana, and W. Chuapoehutz. 1983. Workshop report to agency for international development, 19-29 April 1983. Strengthening of South east Asian Aquaculture !nstitutions.
30 Prinsloo, J. F., and H. J. Schoonbee. 1993. Induced spawning of the Chinese Bighead Carp Aristichthys nobilis Richardson (Pisces Cyprinidae) at the Umtata Fish Research Centre, Transkei. South African Journal of Science 79: 229–231.
31 Schoonbee, H. J., and J. F. Prinsloo. 1984. Techniques and hatchery procedures in induced spawning of the European common carp, Cyprinus carpio and the Chinese carps Ctenopharyngodon idella, Hypophthalmichthys molitrix and Aristichthys nobilis in Transkei. Water SA 10: 36–39. https://doi.org/10.10520/AJA03784738_1275.
32 Nelson, Kirsten, David H. Wahl, and Greg G. Sass. 2014. Competitive interactions between common carp and bighead carp. In . Québec, Canada: Afs.
33 Shariff, M., A. T. Zainuddin, and H. Abdullah. 1986. Pugheadedness in bighead carp, Aristichthys nobilis (Richardson). Journal of Fish Diseases 9: 457–460. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2761.1986.tb01039.x.
34 Zhang, L., Q. Li, J. Lyu, C. Kong, S. Song, and Y. Luo. 2016. The impact of stunning methods on stress conditions and quality of silver carp (Hypophthalmichthys molitrix) fillets stored at 4°C during 72h postmortem. Food chemistry 216: 130–137. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2016.08.004.
35 Zhang, L., Y. Zhang, S. Jia, Y. Li, Q. Li, K. Li, H. Hong, and Y. Luo. 2019. Stunning stress-induced textural softening in silver carp (Hypophthalmichthys molitrix) fillets and underlying mechanisms. Food Chemistry 295: 520–529. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2019.05.148.
36 Retter, Karina, Karl-Heinz Esser, Matthias Lüpke, John Hellmann, Dieter Steinhagen, and Verena Jung-Schroers. 2018. Stunning of common carp: Results from a field and a laboratory study. BMC Veterinary Research 14: 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12917-018-1530-0.
37 Rahmanifarah, K., B. Shabanpour, and A. Sattari. 2011. Effects of Clove Oil on Behavior and Flesh Quality of Common Carp (Cyprinus carpio L.) in Comparison with Pre-slaughter CO2 Stunning, Chilling and Asphyxia. Turkish Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 11: 139–147.
38 Teletchea, Fabrice, and Pascal Fontaine. 2012. Levels of domestication in fish: implications for the sustainable future of aquaculture. Fish and Fisheries 15: 181–195. https://doi.org/10.1111/faf.12006.
